5g Technology. Technical Report

A Technical Report on Atul Chavan Presented by Sri Sunflower College Of Engineering & Technology (Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTU) Lankapalli – 521 131 Submitted By: 1. Sudha Madhuri. Sattiraju 2nd M. C. A Sri Sun Flower Col Of Eng & Tech Lankapally 2. Asha Jyothi. Koganti 2nd M. C. A Sri Sun Flower Col Of Eng & Tech Lankapally Contents 1. Introduction 2. Pre-4G Wireless Standards 3. parameters of 3G &4G 4. Architecture of 4G 5. Challenges: 6. Development: 7. 4G mobile technologies: 8. Future of 4G: 9.Conclusion. 10. Bibilography Abstract: Mobile devices are getting smaller, lighter, and more powerful; they have bigger screens and longer battery life, more features and more capabilities. Things like watching the football game on your mobile device, watching movies, videoconferencing, paying your bills and downloading music to the palm of your hand will become second nature in the near future. Bandwidth will always be the limiting factor in the development of applications and devices, be it wired, or wireless.At the moment the wireless world doesn’t have a large-cell, high bandwidth standard, that is capable of delivering the much needed speeds to a mobile device. The short fall of 3G networks is clear, it’s just not fast enough, offering 384kbps doesn’t meet the requirements of what the end user has come to expect these days. Some people see 3G as a stop-gap, until a fully integrated IP network is created; some countries have even chosen to bypass 3G and head straight to 4G, a method which has its advantages, and its disadvantages. G is set to be available around 2010, getting it right first time will make it a general winner with the one billion mobile users around the world. The end user can expect low cost per data bit, as well as speed and reliability, something which is greatly. Technology Companies with 4G networks are knocking on the door and mobile operators are beginning to answer. 4G networks and Next Generation Netwo rks (NGNs) are becoming fast and very cost-effective solutions for those wanting an IP built high-speed data capacities in the mobile network.IP is pushing its way into the mobile wireless market,† said Visant Strategies Senior Analyst Andy Fuertes, author of â€Å"The Road to 4G and NGN: Wireless IP Migration Paths. † By 2010, the just-published study finds, there will be 113 million NGN and 4G users, with the market starting to take effect 2006 and 2007. Introduction: 4G is an initialize of the term Fourth-Generation Communications System. †¢ A 4G system will provide an end-to-end IP solution where voice, data and streamed multimedia can be served to users on an â€Å"Anytime, Anywhere† basis at higher data rates than previous generations.No formal definition is set as to what 4G is, but the objectives that are predicted for 4G can be summarized as follows †¢ 4G will be a fully IP-based integrated system of systems and network of networks wired and wi reless networks (e. g. : computer, consumer electronics, communication technology†¦) †¢ Providing 100 Mbit/s and 1 Gbit/s, respectively, in outdoor and indoor environments †¢ End-to-end quality of service †¢ High security †¢ Offering any kind of services anytime, anywhere †¢ Affordable cost and one billing †¢   The following are some possible features of the 4G systems : Support interactive multimedia, voice, video, wireless internet and other broadband services. †¢ High speed, high capacity and low cost per bit. †¢ Global mobility, service portability, scalable mobile networks. †¢ Seamless switching, variety of services based on Quality of †¢ Service (QoS) requirements †¢ Better scheduling and call admission control techniques. Ad hoc networks and multi-hop networks Pre-4G Wireless Standards: †¢ WiMAX – 7. 2 million units by 2010 (May include fixed and mobile) †¢ Flash-OFDM – 13 million subscriber s in 2010 (only Mobile) 3GPP Long Term Evolution of UMTS in 3GPP – valued at US$2 billion in 2010 (~30% of the world population) †¢ UMB in 3GPP2 parameters of 3G &4G: |Attribute | 3G |4G | | Major | Predominantly voice- |Converged data and VoIP | |Characteristic|data as add-on | | | Network | Wide area Cell based |Hybrid – integration of Wireless | |Architecture | |Lan (Wi-Fi), Blue Tooth, Wide Area| | Frequency | 1. 6 – 2. GHz |2 – 8 GHz | |Band | | | | Component | Optimized antenna; |Smart antennas; SW multi-band; | |Design |multi-band adapters |wideband radios | | Bandwidth | 5 – 20 MHz |100+ MHz | | Data Rate |385 Kbps – 2 Mbps |20 – 100 Mbps | | Access |WCDMA/CDMA2000 |MC-CDMA or OFDM | | Forward Error|Convolution code 1/2, |Concatenated Coding | |Correction |1/3; turbo | | | Switching |Circuit/Packet |Packet | Architecture of 4G One of the most challenging problems facing deployment of 4G technology is how to access several different mobile and wireless networks. There are three possible architectures for 4G. †¢Multimode devices †¢Overlay network †¢Common access protocol. Multimode devicesThis architecture uses a single physical terminal with multiple interfaces to access services on different wireless networks. It may improve call completion and expand effective coverage area. It should also provide reliable wireless coverage in case of network, link, or switch failure. The user, device, or network can initiate handoff between networks. The device itself incorporates most of the additional complexity without requiring wireless network modification or employing inter working devices. Each network can deploy a database that keeps track of user location, device capabilities, network conditions, and user preferences. Figure-1 The handling of quality-of-service (QoS) issues remains an open research question. Overlay networkIn this architecture, a user accesses an overlay network consisting of several universal access points. These UAPs in turn select a wireless network based on availability, QoS(Quality of Service) specifications, and user defined choices. A UAP performs protocol and frequency translation, content adaptation, and QoS negotiation-renegotiation on behalf of users. Figure-2 A UAP stores user, network, and device information, capabilities, and preferences. The overlay network, rather than the user or device, performs handoffs as the user moves from one UAP to another. Common access protocol This protocol becomes viable if wireless networks can support one or two standard access protocols.One possible solution, which will require inter working between different networks, uses wireless asynchronous transfer mode. To implement wireless ATM, every wireless network must allow transmission of ATM cells with additional headers or wireless ATM cells requiring changes in the wireless networks. Figure-3 Challenges: †¢ v 4G definition – A global consensu s on the 4G definition is needed before the standardization starts. – Despite efforts there still are too many diverging approached to 4G. †¢ Seamless connectivity – Inter- and intra-network connectivity is fundamental to the provision of temporally and spatially seamless services. – Vertical and horizontal handovers are critical for 4G.In the former case, the heterogeneity and variety of networks exacerbate the problem. †¢ Latency – Many 4G services are delay sensitive. – Guaranteeing short delays in networks with different access architecture and coverage is far from straightforward . †¢ 4G definition – A global consensus on the 4G definition is needed before the standardization starts. – Despite efforts there still are too many diverging approached to 4G . †¢ Seamless connectivity – Inter- and intra-network connectivity is fundamental to the provision of temporally and spatially seamless services.  œ Vertical and horizontal handovers are critical for 4G. In the former case, the heterogeneity and variety of networks exacerbate the problem. Development: [pic]A Japanese company has been testing a 4G communication system prototype at 100 Mbit/s while moving, and 1 Gbit/s while stationary. Recently †¢ reached 5 Gbit/s moving at 10 km/h, and is planning on releasing the first commercial network in 2010. †¢ An Irish company has announced that they have received a mobile communications license from Irish Telecoms regulator. This service will be issued the mobile code 088 in Ireland and will be used for the provision of 4G Mobile communications. †¢ Sprint plans to launch 4G services in trial markets by the end of 2007 with plans to deploy a network that reaches as many as 100 million people in 2008 4G mobile technologies: ) Open Wireless Architecture (OWA) 2) Spectrum-efficient High-speed wireless mobile transmission 1. Open Wireless Architecture (OWA) A single system ar chitecture characterized by a horizontal communication model providing common platform to complement different access technologies in an optimum way for different service requirements and radio environments is called the converged broadband wireless platform or open wireless architecture (OWA). OWA will be the next storm in wireless communications, fueled by many emerging technologies including digital signal processing, software- definable radio, intelligent antennas. The open wireless platform requires: Area and power-efficient broadband signal processing for wideband wireless applications †¢ Highest industry channel density (MOPS pooling) in flexible new BTS signal processing architectures †¢ BTS solutions scalable to higher clock rates and higher network capacity Space-Time Coding and MIMO(Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output) Increasing demand for high performance 4G broadband wireless mobile calls for use of multiple antennas at both base station and subscriber ends. Multi ple antenna technologies enable high capacities suited for Internet and multimedia services and also dramatically increase range and reliability.. [pic] Figure-4 The target frequency band for this system is 2 to 5 GHz due to favorable propagation characteristics and low radio-frequency (RF) equipment cost. AdvantagesSpatial diversity and coding gains for large link budget gains (>10 dB). Disadvantage Multiple antennas at the transmitter and rece- iver provide diversity in a fading environment. 2. Spectrum-efficient High-speed wireless mobile transmission Wide-area wireless broadband systems spectral efficiency can yield a system capacity that allows that experience to be delivered simultaneously to many users in a cell, reducing the cost of service delivery for this mass-market broadband service. These systems are optimized to exploit the full potential of adaptive antenna signal processing, thereby providing robust, high-speed connections for mobile users with a minimum of radio in frastructure.Reduced spectrum requirements, minimizing up-front capital expenses related to spectrum †¢ Reduced infrastructure requirements, minimizing capital and operating costs associated with base station sites, translating into reduced costs per subscriber and per covered population element The acquisition of spectrum is a key component of the cost structure of wireless systems, and two key features of spectrum have great impact on that cost ( the spectral efficiency of the wireless system and the type of spectrum required to implement the system. A fully capable and commercially viable mobile broadband system can operate in as little as 5 MHz of unpaired spectrum with a total of 20 Mbps throughput per cell in that amount of spectrum.Factors contribute to the spectral efficiency of a system 1)Modulation formats, Air interface overhead 2)Multiple access method, Usage model. The quantities just mentioned all contribute to the bits/second/Hertz dimensions of the unit. The app earance of a â€Å"per cell† dimension may seem surprising, but the throughput of a particular cell’s base station in a cellular network is almost always substantially less than that of a single cell in isolation. Future of 4G: â€Å"The future of wireless is not just wireless, it is a part of life. † The future offers faster speeds and larger bandwidth. It is suggested that 4G technologies will allow 3D virtual reality and interactive video / hologram images.The technology could also increase interaction between compatible technologies, so that the smart card in the handset could automatically pay for goods in passing a linked payment kiosk (i-mode can already boast this capability) or will tell your car to warm up in the morning, because your phone has noted you have left the house or have set the alarm. 4G is expected to provide high-resolution images (better quality than TV images) and video-links (all of these will require a band width of about 100MHz). Con clusion: ? From user driven perspective, the user has freedom and flexibility to select the service, at a reasonable QoS and price, anytime, anywhere Reconfigurability: Next-generation wireless network interfaces need to be able to switch seamlessly between different communications standards, in order to provide the most suitable level of service while the user moves across different environments. ? 4G, convergence of networks, technologies, applications and services, will offer a personalized and pervasive network to the users. ? Convergence is heading towards an advent of a really exciting and disruptive concept of 4th generation mobile networks. Bibilography: †¢ Journals †¢ IEEE Explore: IEEE journals and conferences http://www. ieee. org/ieeexplore †¢ Ad Hoc Networks Journal †¢ IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing THE END As the technology grows day by day mobile device are also been developed by getting lighter, smaller a nd more powerful. Most of the mobile phones are been smart which are capable of doing all sort of operation done in computers, are able perform video conference, etc. For such high performance may not be capable to operate in 3G network until a fully integrated IP network is created. For this features the next generation network was introduced the 4G. It was set available around 2010, where the end user can expect low cost for data bits as well as reliability and speed which should be more efficient than 3G networks. G system can provide an end-to-end IP solution where data, voice and streamed multimedia, and can be delivered to users on an â€Å"Anytime, Anywhere† basis at a higher data rates than 3G networks. It is designed as a fully IP-based integrated system of systems and network of networks wired and wireless networks, it is able to provide data rate of 100 MB/s than the previous generation networks, 4G provides end to end QoS (quality of service), it is able to provid e high security, it provides integrated multimedia, video, voice wireless internet and other broad band services and Global mobility, service portability, scalable mobile networks, Better scheduling and call admission control techniques.One of the main challenges faced in 4G development was how to access several wireless networks and different mobile phones, for this problems three main architecture are been designed they are, Multimode device, overlay network and the common access protocols these architectures are been briefly discussed in this paper. Some of the other main challenges faced during the development were seamless connectivity, latency. This paper also discuss about the technologies used in the 4G, Open wireless architecture (OWA), spectrum efficient high speed wireless mobile transmission. | | | Reference: http://seminarprojects. com/Thread-4g-mobile-networking-full-seminar-report-download#ixzz2OuQ9qWjR

The Power Consumption

The power consumption for sending (or receiving) a single message in a mobile phone Abstract: We measure overall SMS, Whatapps and Wechat for the power consumption of a single message. These results are validated by overall power measurements of two other devices: the Battery Doctor and Battery Detective. We discuss the significance of the power drawn by the various length and time of texting messages, and identify the most promising areas to focus on for further improvements of power management. We also analyze the energy impact of dynamic voltage and frequency scaling of the device’s application processor.Introduction: In recent years, people have a mobile phone in their hands all the day. At the same time, device functionality is increasing rapidly. In the number of applications, texting messages occupied an important part. Hence, optimal management of power consumption of devices such as SMS, WhatsApp and WeChat is critical. In this paper we attempt to answer how much of t he system’s energy is consumed by sending (or receiving) a single message of the system and under what circumstances. And we will use IPhone5 as the experimental product.Furthermore, we validate the results with computing manually and the additional mobile device: Battery Doctor, Battery Detective. Material: Experimental product: IPhone5 (IOS6. 1. 2) Timer Testing Applications: Messages, WhatsApp, WeChat Measuring Application: Battery Doctor and Battery Detective Formula: 1)The time of sending each message=The time of the usage of 1% power/ Number of messages. 2) Average electricity consumption of each message ( with the Wifi usage)= 1% power of Iphone 5/ Number of messages. ) Average electricity consumption of each message ( without the Wifi usage) =(1% power of Iphone 5/ Number of messages) – (The time of sending each message x The power consumption rate of wifi function). Methodology: Device under test Experimental setup When an iPhone is not actively being used (th e screen is off), the biggest power drain are the various radios: WiFi, 3G and Bluetooth. So first tip is to turn off any service you don’t need. Settings are useful in doing so with one tap. There is some information you need to calculate before we collect the data.Therefore, after you turn off all the service that you do not use, you have to turn on the Battery Doctor and check out the battery usage of your phone and calculate how much usage if 1%power. In the case of IPhone 5, the battery usage is 1430, therefore IPhone 5 1% power= 1430/100= 14. 30 mAh. Also, you can use the Battery Doctor to check out how long you still can use on that percentage of battery. Then, according to the Doctor Battery, when IPhone 5 in 41% power, it can use 8hrs 15mins without the WiFi function. If use with the WiFi function, it can use 7hrs 13mins.Therefore, you can calculate that: The power of IPhone 5 in 41%: 14. 3mAh x 41 = 586. 3mAh The power consumption rate of IPhone 5 without the WiFi f unction: 586. 3 mAh/[(60 x 8 +15) x 60] = 0. 0197 mAh s-1 The power consumption rate of IPhone 5 without the WiFi function: 586. 3 mAh/[(60 x7 +13) x 60] = 0. 0226 mAh s-1 The power consumption rate of WiFi function: 0. 0226 – 0. 0197 = 0. 0029 mAh s-1 Then, you get all the basic information which you need, and you can turn off the Battery Doctor, and start to collect the data. Then, you need to let your phone natural reduce 1% power.After it you can use the timer to count time and type your message and send it out. After you use 1% of power, you can stop the timer and count how many messages did u sent and record it. Then, you need to repeat to collect those data several times. However, you also need to do it in different power percentage, to collect more data. After u collect the data of time and number of messages sending, you can use those formula to calculate the information. Software Excel, Word, Battery Doctor, Battery Detective Results We had collected the data from 3 different power level, high power (>80%), general power (20-80%), and lower power (

Islamic art and architecture from the seventh to the thirteenth Essay

Islamic art and architecture from the seventh to the thirteenth century - Essay Example Islam’s influence and presence in Spain dates back to the 9th century, when Muslims emigrated to the west. In 1492, most Muslims were expelled and the few who managed to stay back publicly proclaimed Catholicism to avoid expulsion. (Spain, Demographics, Euro-Islam info. Country profiles, euro-islam.info/pages/spain.html) The powerful Muslim armies in their quest for expansion began invading countries that stretched from the Western borders of India, across Persia and Northern Africa, to Spain and Southern France. In order to establish their faith in these countries, they constructed Mosques and prayer halls of architectural brilliance. They remained for 800 years in Europe until in 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella over-rode them. During their reign, the Muslims perceived the need to establish artistically styled monuments to help expand their faith and compete with other religions. Their success in this endeavor led to the presence of today’s remarkable Arts & Architectures (The development of Islamic art: Graeco-Roman, Lesson 5 Art part: Islamic art, www.dartmouth.edu) 2.0 Executive Summary Art was predominant during the 7th to 13th century Europe. With the arrival of the Muslims, art was not just artistic, but it was purposeful as well. However, not all Islamic art had a specific religious purpose, unique to the Islamic faith. One of the most distinguishing features of Islamic art is the absence of an image of religious context. Idolatry is considered a grave sin. It is believed that any form of human worship is profane to the idea of Allah as the only God. This clearly distinguishes Islamic art from Christian and/or other religious arts. In architecture, painting, and carpet-weaving, Muslims limit their portrayals of humans or animals. To Muslims, decoration meant use of calligraphy, flowers and leaves. Geometrical and floral patterns also adorned Islamic art and architecture (The Islamic World to 1600, www.ucalgary.ca)3. This research paper will strive to identify the influences and brilliance of different Muslim art and architectural in Spain, and its impact on non-Muslim Spanish people. The paper also looks at the various centers of art in Spain. 3.0 Islamic Art and Architecture With the use of colors and balance between design and form, Islamic art creates a visual impact. Such is its artistic appeal that it transcends distance in time and space, as well as differences in language, culture, and creed. Islamic art not only invites a closer look but also beckons the viewer to learn more. Spain, along with other European countries like France, Germany, and Austria became targets for Muslim expansionism. The army brought with them their cultural and spiritual ideology. Their most important building was the mosque, followed by the royal palace. Early mosques were square in shape. Gradually with expansion in size and strength, this requirement led to larger and more elaborate prayer halls. In the late 8th century, Spain saw the construction of the Mosque of Cordoba, with a courtyard in the centre, roofed arcades, and minarets; towers that extend vertically. This mosque had a spacious hall to accommodate more worshippers, a definite move to encourage more and more worshippers and spread Islam. They were built solid to withstand external influences, a contrast to their palaces, which were built from unbaked bricks and/or plaster. The Muslim rulers were not too keen on permanent structures, preferring to abandon them later. The purpose to spread their religion led them to construct significant architectural marvels that would leave a lasting impression on the people. A few of these are mentioned herein:

EUROPEAN FINANCIAL CRISIS AND FINANCIAL MARKETS Essay

EUROPEAN FINANCIAL CRISIS AND FINANCIAL MARKETS - Essay Example Acharya (2013) observes that a combination of factors led to the emergence of the European Union Financial Crises of 2010-2013. These factors include availability of easy credit conditions which occurred during the periods 2002-2008, and they led to high risk borrowing and lending practices. Patomaki (2013) believes that other factors include globalization of finance, imbalances in international trade, poor governmental fiscal policies, the economic recession of 2008-2012, and ineffective methods used by these nations to bail out troubled financial institutions. Acharya (2013) observes that the European financial crises had began unfolding late in 2009, when the government of Greece gave a revelation that previous governments did not give accurate reports of their budget deficits. In fact, they were under-reporting the financial position of the country. The revelation of this under-reporting occurred during the first quarter of the year 2010. During this year, the government of Greece gave a revelation that the 2009 budget deficit was 12.7%, and not 5%, as reported by the previous government (Patomäki, 2013). Roth (2013) denote that the Maastricht treaty made a provision which required parties to the treaty to maintain a budget deficit which is lower than 3% of the country’s GDP. Greece had a debt of around 400 billion pounds, and the French government owned 10% of this debt (Roth, 2013). This debt crisis spread to other smaller countries such as Portugal, Ireland, and Spain. Tyrie and London (2012) denotes that this crisis led to economic imbalances within Euro zone countries. In 2010, the European Union bailed out Greece by giving them a loan of 110 billion Euros, and another 130 billion Euros after two years (Tyrie and London, 2012). This paper analyzes the impact of the Euro zone debt crises on the financial markets. This paper analyzes the impact of this crisis on the equity market, and the bond market. This paper seeks to answer the question; What was the impact of the European Financial Crises on the bond and the equity market? In seeking an answer to this question, this paper borrows heavily from the elements of the portfolio theory and the asset pricing. Matousek (2012) observes that the portfolio theory is a theory of finance that aims at maximizing the expected return of a particular portfolio risk, or effectively minimizing the risks associated with a particular portfolio. It aims to achieve this objective by careful consideration of various investments options or portfolios. The portfolio theory is an aspect of diversification in investments, and it aims at selecting a variety of investments options which presents a lower risk, as opposed to other investments options (Matousek, 2012). This theory was developed on the basis that different investments assets, normally constantly change in value. Diversification therefore lowers the risk an investor might face. The asset pricing theory on the other hand concerns itself with explaining the relationship between expected returns, and the risk undertaken (Marco, 2013). It was developed on the premise that diversification alone cannot reduce the risks associated with investing in a volatile stock market. Marco (2013) further denotes that an investor has to be compensated in two ways, namely; the risk undertaken, and the value of his money, which is also considered in terms of time. This theory identifies a formula to use in calculating the expected returns of an investment (Marco, 2013). Equity Markets and the Euro zone Financial Crises: Farlow (2013) denotes that another term used to refer to the equity market is the stock market. This refers to a market where there is an issue of shares, and subsequent trading of those shares. These shares can ei ther be traded over the counter, or through various exchanges. Equity markets are a very volatile segment of an economy, and companies can use this type of a market to raise capital for their expansion and growth. The European Financ

Evaluating Internationalization Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Evaluating Internationalization Strategy - Essay Example Technological 7 3.1.5. Environmental factors 7 3.1.6. Legal factors 8 3.2. SWOT Analysis 8 3.3. Market Entry Strategies 8 4. Conclusion 10 5. Recommendations 10 Bibliography 10 Au, K., Suen, B., Shen, N. and Tang, J. 2011. Internationalization of Koyo Jeans from Hong Kong. Â  Richard Ivey School of Business Foundation Pp. 11Â   10 Bardhan, p. 2003. International Trade, Growth, and Development. Wiley-Blackwell. pp.296 11 Brigham, E.F and Ehrhardt, M. 2010. Financial Management: Theory & Practice (with Thomson ONE - Business School Edition 1-Year Printed Access Card) South-Western College Pub 1184 11 Bomann-Larsen, L. and Wiggen, O. 2004. Responsibility in World Business: Managing Harmful Side-Effects of Corporate Activity. Tokyo, United Nations University Press, Pp.305 11 Blenkhorn, D.L. and Fleisher, C.S.2005. Competitive Intelligence and Global Business. Westport, CT, Praeger Pp.308 11 Cullen, J.B. and Parboteeah, K.P. 2010. International Business: Strategy and the Multinational C ompany. Routledge. pp.528 11 Kline, J.M. 2005. Ethics for International Business: Decision Making in a Global Political Economy. London, Routledge. Pp.285 11 Matthew, H. 2012. Demands of Supply: The Illicit Pathways of Global Supply Chains: Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 66 (1). 11 Magretta, J. 2011. Creating Value: The Core--Staking Out Your Company's Unique Competitive Position Using Michael Porter's Elements of Strategy. Harvard Business Press Chapters. Pp.29 12 Magretta, J. 2011. Understanding Michael Porter: The Essential Guide to Competition and Strategy. Harvard Business Press. Pp.2008 12 Montgomery, C.A and Porter M E. 1991. Strategy: Seeking and Securing Competitive Advantage Harvard Business Press. Pp.350 12 Porter M. E. 2008. On Competition, Updated and Expanded Edition. Harvard Business Press. Pp. 576. 12 Wettstein, F. 2009. Multinational Corporations and Global Justice: Human Rights Obligations of a Quasi-Governmental Institution. Stanford, CA, Stanford Business Books. Pp.425. 12 1. Introduction Koyo Jeans’ business was started by William Cheung in 2003 in Hong Kong. Though he had started a small business targeting the local clients in Hong Kong, today the business has spread to China and Spain. The management is targeting to explore other parts of the globe; specifically Singapore and Brazil (Cavusgil.et.al, 2011, p. 457). Technological advancement, political climate, socio-cultural, environmental and legal factors relating to specific nation affects the performance of trading activities in that country (Au.et. al, 2011, p.3). The expansion of Koyo Jeans’ business to other countries like Singapore and Brazil will require thorough understanding of prevailing conditions in the target market and a strategic approach to enable them overcome those. 2. Environment Audit of the Current Market 2.1. Industry Life-cycle When Koyo Jeans sets up business, sales are normally low since clients are not familiar with the business. The owner is not able to enjoy economies of scale hence high overhead cost. With time, the production efficiency and the number of customer increases, hence the owner starts enjoying benefits due to large scale production resulting to low overhead cost. Later on, other producers join the market, the total sales volume of individual investor declines resulting to decline in business growth (Cavusgil.et.al, 2011, p. 463). When the market becomes oversaturated with investors, revenue of the individuals starts declining due to increasing operation cost (Au.et. al,

Reagan, Obama and Inequality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reagan, Obama and Inequality - Essay Example Nicholas Kristof argues in his article that the inequality has soared since the time president Reagan took office to this time when president Obama is still in office. According to Nicholas, the median household income has stagnated and educational progress has almost come to a halt. He further argues that the average Canadian family is better off than the average American family. The author has based his arguments from the late 1970s to now when president Obama is still in office. The issue of inequality came up in the president’s state of the union address (Kristof). The president proposed that the government should take this issue seriously and corrective measures should be taken. However, the author does not believe that any action will be taken, citing that every year the president mentions an issue during the state of the union address and nothing is usually done to correct the situation. The author differentiates between opinions and facts. Some of the facts the author gives are that the median income for households has increased from the year 1979. However, according to his opinion, the Average American family is worse off than the average Canadian family.

Nirvana - Band Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nirvana - Band Review - Essay Example His fateful suicide signaled a major loss to the music environment and marked one of the pivotal events of 1990s music. Even with the fantastical nature of Cobain’s story, the power and insight of his music is perhaps the most moving element of Nirvana. While generally concerned with the pains and angst of existence, Nirvana’s albums span a wide-range of emotions. It’s within this context that I have come to greatly relate to their music. While it was not the first album of Nirvana’s that I heard or nearly their most popular record, the first full-length album that Nirvana released was Bleach. Bleach has been an important album to my life for many reasons. One of the primary aspects that I appreciate this record is that it has a raw edge that the later Nirvana records don’t have. In many regards, some of the themes on this record are the same as on later Nirvana records; indeed, ‘About a Girl’ is even featured on these later records. .. . Virtually every song on this album is highly emotionally charged and gripping. This was the first Nirvana album I discovered. I listened to this album in a time of intense despair in my life, after my girlfriend and I had broken up. The intensity of emotion and deep feeling spoke the depression I was feeling on a level that other music couldn’t. I also believe the album was successful for speaking to the challenges of socialization and fighting one’s way through a scholastic environment that was oftentimes cruel and challenging. While other music attempts to speak to these growing pains, oftentimes the emotions contained in those albums come across as forced and somewhat produced. When listening to Nirvana’s ‘Nevermind’ I was truly able to take solace in a record that I felt understanding the pain and challenges I was facing in attempting to relate and survive in a cold social climate. In terms of specific tracks, I’ve always felt like ‘ Smells Like Teen Spirit’ spoke directly to my angst at feeling like I didn’t fit in with the popular crowd. While a lot of individuals put-down Nirvana for being depressing music, or criticizing Kurt Cobain for ultimately committing suicide, I find a different perspective on this music. For me it represents a necessary response to questions of life that oftentimes go unanswered. I believe that in great part the nature of the music is attempting to grasp with aspects of life that are unfair. Why do more attractive people get to enjoy certain aspects of existence that others don’t? Why do some people feel more depressed than others? Why these may seem simple and trite questions,

Does language influence thinking skills or cognition Essay

Does language influence thinking skills or cognition - Essay Example All these include some of the questions several philosophies within cognitive science are trying to answer. For a much longer period, the thought that language might influence thought was considered wrong. Several data analysis have been collected through most parts and the end results show that, individuals who speak diverse dialects do indeed think differently and that even grammar can intensely influence how most people perceive the world. To elucidate the stated thought, let us ask ourselves a simple question; how would our lives be if we had never learned any of the languages? Could we still have friends around us, hold any particular job, have a relationship or family, get an education, explore our gifting or maximize our potential? Language is thus essential and entirely part of our lives, that it’s even hard to imagine life without it. A four-year-old in one society can perform a task with much ease as opposed to an intellectual in another society. This is a huge difference in cognitive strength and the surprising answer to this cause is the language. This theory goes back to the centuries with philosophers Sapir and Whorf emphasizing that, variances in languages such as English and Hopi, lead to the difference in thinking (Eysenck & Keane, 2000, p. 122-24). This thought however was met with serious criticism over time as philosophers argued that, the theories were not supported by much proof. However, decades later, it is still evident that language shapes thinking. The results have had a great influence in law, education and even politics. Speakers of diverse languages also vary in how they define events and, as a result, how they can remember who did what and so forth. All events, even instant accidents, are complex and need us to interpret what happened. Take, for instance, former vice president Dick Cheney’s accident, in which he unintentionally shot Harry Whittington. One could say that it seemed as if

The Role of Mental Set in Classroom Management Essay - 15

The Role of Mental Set in Classroom Management - Essay Example Mental set helps teachers to cultivate stance in relation to the classroom. Teachers can come up with solutions quickly in a classroom situation. For example, when children disrupt the classroom the teacher acts fast because he or she has experienced a similar problem and had a solution to it. This helps to minimize class disruptions because the students know the teacher is in control (Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, 2003). Every human being has their strong and weak points. It is important for teachers to evaluate themselves in order to know their strengths and weaknesses. It helps a lot in maintaining effective classroom management. As a teacher, my main strength is my ability to maintain a good relationship with the students. Having taught for some years, I have learned the importance of maintaining a good relationship with the students. This helps in improving the students’ performance and also helps in cooperating with them. My ability to accommodate students from different cultural backgrounds is another area I do well. Having taught student from a different culture, I have come to learn the importance of understanding the students (Montgomery, 2001). Different cultures have different practices that if not understood can be misinterpreted. For example, Mexicans expect their children to be obedient, quiet and seek approval before acting. This can be interpreted as been overly dependent on the teacher. As a teacher, I tend to act swiftly in class this is an area I can do better. A case of a situation in class, I tend to act quickly without consulting what had caused the particular incident. Due to the fact, I have encountered similar situations in the classroom. This is an area I can work on in order to be a better classroom manager (Weinstein, Curran, & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003).

Professionalism in the Medical Field Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Professionalism in the Medical Field - Essay Example Medicine is a critical and very important profession as it deals with the lives of people. One mistake and it could end up in the loss of a precious life. Apart from that patient compliance is also very important. People concerned with the medical field must be appropriately dressed and must project a professional image so that the patient is confident that he/she is in capable hands. Some general elements of dress codes include dressing in neat, clean, crisp and pressed suits. Suits should be appropriately fitted and shouldn't be too short (in case of females wearing skirts). Casual wear such as denim/jeans, shorts, cutoffs, caprice etc and not permitted. The dress should not be exposing such as having plunging necklines, backless, strapless, spaghetti straps, sheer etc. Jewelry should be avoided or should be minimal and not too large or heavy. Underwear should not be visible. Full length or knee length stockings or socks must be worn. Shoes should be of appropriate size, fitting, c lean and in good repair. Casual wear such as flip flops, bedroom wear is unacceptable. Carrying a cellular phone for the sake of having personal calls is prohibited. Chewing gum is front of patients is not allowed. Nails should be trimmed and short for hygiene purposes. No artificial nail extensions are allowed. Nail polish if worn should not be chipped. Body odor or very strong perfume is unfavorable. All personal is expected to maintain good body hygiene. Scrubs, uniforms or lab coats should be worn wherever required. Hats or caps are not acceptable unless for religious reasons. (UCSF, 2002) Ethics, as in the case of all professions, maintains a high stand point in medical healthcare as well. Perhaps the most important aspect is that of patient privacy. Patient approval before releasing the medical records is essential by law. However in some cases the rule might be relaxed for providing healthcare services. (Ducca, 2008) Interaction with the patient and other colleagues plus a person's behavior are and integral part of maintaining a professional atmosphere. Due to the critical and demanding nature of the medical profession, it is essential for the individual to have appropriate time management as well as multi tasking skills. He/she must show discretion with sensitive content, maintain a team environment and comply with laws, rules and regulations. The attitude must be friendly and interest conflict must be handled carefully or completely eliminated if possible. A professional must be aware and accept full responsibility for his/her actions. They should also keep in mind that they are accountable for every action and should be reliable, available, handle problems until resolved and finish what they have started. (Toms, 2008) It is imperative to have the appropriate body language while interacting with others. When communicating the use of your body is as important as the right use of words. Example while delivering good news to the patient, if the doctor is stiff and unsmiling the patient might get aggravated and think the doctor is lying while good news delivered with a smile and relaxed body is the appropriate way. Similarly while interacting

Describe The Factors To Consider Essay Example for Free

Describe The Factors To Consider Essay There are a number of factors to consider when promoting effective communication. When using verbal communication with patients it is important to speak looking at them, speaking slowly and clearly and using simple language,. It is important to note that when working with patients with learning disabilities we have made sure they have understood what I have said. When speaking with colleagues or professionals the language I use can be more complex and often I will speak faster however most factors remain the same, it is still important that information given verbally is clear and concise. An example of this is when this is when I have mentored new staff I make sure I talk over everything slowly and clearly and I also get then to repeat some of that information back to show they have understood. Verbally communicating in this way will differ dependant on weather I am talking on a one to one basis or to a group. If I am talking to a group I must remember to address everyone and not exclude anyone. When using non-verbal communication there are many different factors to consider. For example, if I am slummed back in a chair, it may show that I am not interested in the conversation. Eye contact is also very important as this can show that I am engaged in the conversation, other things to consider would be hand gestures, body language and facial expressions, for example, if I frown or have my arms folded I may give a negative impression. Finally it is important to remember that for effective communication to take place it involves both parties to be engaged. Being able to listen well is vital in a two way conversations.

Life Before the Internet and After the Internet Essay Example for Free

Life Before the Internet and After the Internet Essay Life was very different before the advent of the Internet. Communication methods were limited, stores were the only place to buy goods and services, and physical libraries were the only place to find information and research. The three biggest changes caused by the Internet are in communication, sales, and access to information. The Internet has changed the way people communicate. It allows for instant and reliable communication between people across the street or across the globe. In the past, the only ways to send documents were via fax and postal mail. Faxes were limited because messages could only include two-dimensional text and graphics. The postal mail faced these same issues, as well as the problem with the time it took to send a document through the mail. With the Internet, documents with text, graphics, audio files, video files, and interactive objects can now be transmitted quickly to anyone with a simple click of a button. This has changed the way business is done and has made it easier for companies to expand into new markets. On a smaller level, the Internet has allowed people to reconnect with old friends or make new ones. Chat rooms and social networks such as MySpace. com are becoming increasingly popular as people enjoy the sense of anonymity. The second way that the Internet has changed the world is in the buying and selling of goods and services. With the ability to purchase products online, the business world has changed drastically. Online stores are competing for business, while established brick-and-mortar stores have set up web-based stores as well. Customers can now purchase nearly everything they need from the comfort of their own homes. The Internet has also allowed for quick and easy comparisons of the prices and quality of products and services. The final and most important impact of the Internet is in the access of information. In the past, if you needed to find information on the history of Latin America, you had to go to your local library. Then, you were limited by which books and resources the library carried. With limited budgets, libraries cannot be expected to carry the best sources for every topic. Today, you can access information on any topic from the Internet through academic journals, online encyclopedias, book reviews, and more. In addition, you can find information on every television and radio program, historical events, current events, health issues, scientific discoveries, sporting events, and theories on everything from biomedicine to parenting. Finally, being able to access information online has led to colleges and universities offering degrees where it is not necessary for students to ever step into a classroom. Lectures, PowerPoint slides, notes, and required readings are available on the Internet. In conclusion, the Internet has significantly changed the world in the way people communicate, do business, and learn. The rapidity with which these changes took place suggests that more drastic and exciting changes are still to come. New and innovative uses for technology are developed every day, and the Internet is a major focus of these developments.

The Electoral Evolution In The Island Of Mauritius Politics Essay

The Electoral Evolution In The Island Of Mauritius Politics Essay This introductory chapter projects a clear idea about the central issue of concern in the research. The reasons for this particular investigation are also elaborated. A full statement of the research aims and objectives, based on the stated research problem is included. The chapter ends with a brief of the structure and content of the remaining chapters of the dissertation. 1.0 Overview Section 1 of the Constitution of the Republic of Mauritius states that Mauritius shall be a sovereign democratic State which shall be known as the Republic of Mauritius. Section 2 defines that the Constitution is the supreme law of Mauritius and if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution, that other law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void. Mauritius is a constitutional parliamentary democracy, based on the Westminster model, which consists of the President and the National Assembly. Elected on a First-Pass-the-post system, at an interval of 5 years, during the General Election, the Assembly makes provision for 70 candidates on 20 constituencies. (The Constitution of the Republic of Mauritius) However, this model has been often subject to critics. Michael Duggett (2009), in his thesis about the Westminster Model, states that this model is one-dimensional, simplistic and has weakened as well as privatised. Rod Rhodes (2005) expressed his opinion saying that the model is hollowed-out. This might be a cause which is affecting the level of voter turnout in Mauritius. 1.1 Scope of the study In this study, I propose to study the different causes of abstention at the General Elections and the policies that can be adopted to reduce this phenomenon. This research relates to the island of Mauritius only and therefore does not include Rodrigues and the other outer islands. Research Title The research title is: A study of the causes of voting abstention at the General Election in the Island of Mauritius. Definition of voting abstention Abstention occurs when an eligible voter does not cast a ballot during an election process. It has been observed that many countries are suffering from a high abstention rate due to the citizens low participation during elections. 1.3 Problem statement An  election  is a formal  decision-making process  by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office while vote is a citizens civic duty; however there are some people who abstain from voting for several reasons. Since our representative democratic model relies on citizen participation in elections, less participation means less representation, therefore, less people who decide for everyone else. Falling turnout is often seen as a mark of disengagement, if not of actual disaffection (Norris 1999) The General Elections of year 2005 and 2010 will be used to show the issue; that is, a rise in voting abstention. Table 1 below shows the rate of abstention at the General Election during the year 2005 and 2010. A detailed analysis of the statistics is given in Appendix A: The rate of voting abstention in year 2005 and Appendix B: The rate of voting abstention in year 2010. Table 1: Rate of abstention during year 2005 2010 General Election Year No of Registered electors No of voters % of voters Abstention Rate 2005 793449 644069 81.17 18.83 2010 875356 658441 75.22 24.78 Average Rate 78.05 21.95 Source: Electoral Commissioners Office 1.4 Research Aim The main aim of the study is to analyse the causes which are decreasing the rate of turnout in the Mauritian General Election. 1.5 Research Objectives The objectives of this research are as follows: To calculate the level of abstention and the evolution thereof during the General Election of year 2005 and 2010; To identify the factors which are likely to affect the decision of Mauritians whether to abstain or to vote; To find out the policies that can be adopted to alleviate this problem of voter abstention. 1.6 Structure of the dissertation CHAPTER 1 introduces the issue of voting abstention, the actual electoral system in Mauritius, the right to vote under the Mauritian Constitution, the scope of the study, the research title, the statement of problem is identified, the research aim and the research objectives are pointed out and finally the structure of the dissertation is elaborated in details. CHAPTER 2 focuses on the political system and its evolution since 1810 before adopting the actual system. CHAPTER 3 provides a literature review which analyses the different causes that could affect voters from abstaining. CHAPTER 4 encompasses in detail how the research has been carried out and comprises all relevant information regarding the research methods to meet the objectives of the study. CHAPTER 5 provides a discussion of results and findings from the survey which has been carried out. Each aspect of the questionnaire had been analyzed and interpreted. CHAPER 6 provides a conclusion and some recommendations for the benefit of policy makers and administrators and other people interested in this field, together with a conclusion. 1.7 Chapter Conclusion This first chapter has helped to set out an overview about the topic under investigation. The scope of the study is worked out before giving way to the research aims and objectives. Finally the structuring of the whole report has been elaborated. CHAPTER 2: THE ELECTORAL EVOLUTION IN THE ISLAND OF MAURITIUS 2.0 A Historical Background The Island of Mauritius has been consequently conquered by Arab Sailors, Portuguese, Dutch, French and the British. The Arab sailors were the first who visited the island which was named as Dina Arobi. The Portuguese came in year 1507, followed by the Dutch during the year 1598 who renamed the island as Mauritius. In 1715, the French took control of the island and renamed it Ile de France. Ile de France was formally surrendered to the British, on the 3rd December 1810, where the islands name was reverted to Mauritius. During their abdication, the French was allowed to keep their land and property and to use the French language and law of France in civil and criminal matters on the island. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1 Electoral System Mauritius has experienced a number of electoral systems since 1810 before adopting the actual system. The electoral system of Mauritius is based on the majority rule and government stability as it comprises of a fair representation of the population. The choice of government is made by citizens. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.1 One Man One Rule (1810-1886) During 1810-1886, Mauritius was under the British Colonial Rule whereby the governor was enjoying all the law-making and decision-making process over Franco-Mauritian elite. It was a one man one rule policy. In 1825, Mauritius obtained its first Constitution under which a Council of Government, which consisted of 4 top officials: Chief Justice, Chief Secretary, Commander of forces and Collector of Customs, was set up. Later, in 1885, the Constitution was revised and enlarged to make room for elected representatives. The new Council of Government provided 27 members, including 10 elected members, on a restricted franchise. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.2 First-Pass-The-Post-System (FPTP) (1886-1958) Year 1886, welcomes Mauritius first General Election (G.E) under the British Rule. The G.E was limited to wealthy property owners, who constituted only 2 percent of the adult population; that is, out of 365,000 inhabitants, only 12,000 of which all were men, could vote. 2 out of 10 elected members were from Port-Louis and 1 from each 8 districts. Under the 1885 Constitution, Mauritius was divided into 9 constituencies and each constituency elected one representative and Port-Louis, the capital, in relation to highest number of population returned two candidates to the legislative. The elections were held during nine days: from 11-20 January; and were based on the first-past-the-post system. Traces of the 1886 Constitution, can be found in the actual electoral system as the FPTP has been prevailing in Mauritius whereby the candidate receiving the highest number of votes were elected. Due to World War II, G.E could not be held during 1939-1945. The second G.E was then held in 1948, after that the 1886 Constitution was replaced by a new one, which allowed all those above 21 years old who could sign their name in any of the following languages: English, French, Creole, or any Indian languages, to vote through FPTP. Out of 419,000; 72,000 inhabitants, including 12,000 women, were registered electors. Following constitutional conventions held in London in 1955 and 1957, the ministerial system was initiated and G.E was held on 9th March 1959. Voting took place for the first time on the basis of universal adult suffrage and the number of electors rose to 208,684. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.3 London Agreement (1956-1957) Due to Mauritius multi-ethnic society the issue of an ideal electoral system has been a real concern. Since 1956, there was a need for a proper representation of the citizens in the Parliament. In the first London Agreement in 1957, the concept of Proportional Representation (PR) in the system was bluntly rejected. The agreement was supposed to eradicate communal ideology and encourage a system based on political parties not religion. The citizens wanted an ethnic reassurance where PR could prevailed in the National Assembly. The Mauritius Labour Party (MLP) under the successive leaderships of Dr Maurice Cure and Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam persistently struggled not only for universal suffrage and responsible Government, but also a ministerial form of Government, a decrease in the number of nominees and an increase in that of elected members, changes in the composition of the Executive Council, the appointment of a Speaker and the majority party leader to be styled Prime Minister. During the 1955 Constitutional Conference which was held in London, the MLP requested some constitutional changes. The London Agreement envisaged nomination of maximum of 12 nominees to ensure fair representation. The right to vote was franchise to both sexes over the age of twenty-one and symbols were introduced to facilitate uneducated voters. The number of electors rose to 207,000 at the 1957 elections. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democr acy in Africa) 2.1.4 Trustram-Eve Recommendations (1957) In year 1957, Sir Malcolm Trustram Eve; member of the London Agreement, recommended a 40 single-member constituency system along with the FPTP system. This implies that there is no need for a majority overall to win over a seat. The year 1957 had launched the Ministerial system where the elected candidates were able to decide upon policy issues in many areas. The Ministerial system comprised of nine ministers out of whom six were elected and three nominated. Despite the fact that it was not a fully elected body, the island had its first representative body and the Executive Council was chaired by the Governor. Trustrams recommendation was to ensure ethnic and communal representation in the legislative. The nominees are the ancestors of the best loser system. In 1964, in view of not upsetting the population, the governors did not increase the number of nominees. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.5 Banwell Report (1966) The Banwell Report was initially based on the Trustrams-Eve recommendations. Part of Mauritius actual electoral system is based on Banwell Recommendations. Banwell Commission was set up after the proposals made for an electoral system, at the Lancaster House Conference of September 1965, failed. Banwell then proposed the followings: 20 constituencies returning 3 members in Mauritius and 2 members in Rodrigues. A division of the population for electoral law purposes: Hindu, Muslin, Chinese and the General Population. Use of FPTP in theory and the three pass the post in practice. 5 constant best loser seats to be filled as soon as results of general election are official so as to overcome the problem of under representation. Candidates chosen as best losers should secure largest number of votes among the defeated candidates belonging to the under-represented community and 10% of the general votes. Any party receiving more than 25% of the total vote and less than 25% seats in Parliament would be reallocated to bring its share to 25%. The last proposal was rejected by the MLP, then Stonehouse; MLPs friend, was called as a negotiator. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.5.1 Stonehouse Modifications Stonehouse modified the 5 constant correctives to the 8 best loser votes. The variable correctives and the 10% votes were also rejected. The first 4 best losers seats were to be allocated to parties belonging to under presented communities irrespective to party affiliation .The community for the first 4 best losers is obtained by dividing the population of each of the communities by number of seats obtained by that community in general election plus one. The second 4 best losers were allocated on party and community basis. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.5.2 The final proposal and actual electoral system The final proposal and the actual electoral system is based on Banwell recommendations and modified by Stonehouse. There are 70 members in the parliament ,60 out of the 70 are directly elected through FPTP in 20 constituencies with returning 3 candidates each and Rodrigues 2 candidates as shown in the table below. The remaining 8 are the best losers chosen by the Electoral Supervisory Commission immediately after results of general elections. This structure has been basically maintained up to now. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.6 Independence The 1967 election brought a milestone in the history of Mauritius. About 90% of the electorate voted. PMSD fought against independence while MLP fought for independence. PMSD was defeated and MLP won 39 seats by obtaining 54% of the national votes. Mauritius acceded to the status of independence on the 12th March 1968. The first parliamentary election which took place on the 20th December 1976 amended the right to vote. Those aged 18 and above could vote. Out of 462,034, 170,000 were new eligible voters. The first general election after independence was an electoral victory. It was the first time that a single party alliance; Mauritian Militant Movement (MMM) and Parti Socialiste Mauricien (PSM), won all 60 seats. Subsequently, the contribution was altered to guarantee that legislation elections occur every five years. Parliamentary by-elections were also reinstated. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral institute for sustainable democracy in Africa) 2.1.7 Westminster Model The Constitution of Mauritius provides for the Parliament of Mauritius to consist of the President and the National Assembly. The Parliament of Mauritius is modeled after the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy, where Members of Parliament are voted in at regular general elections, on the basis of a first past the post system. (Official site of the Republic of Mauritius-The Parliament) The Westminster System guarantees the separation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers. Political power rests on the Prime Minister and the cabinet. Sixty-two members of Parliament are elected every five years by universal adult suffrage and all major political parties are represented in Parliament.   The Legislative Assembly became the National Assembly. The Governor General was replaced by the President of the Republic. The latter is elected by the legislative upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister. (Dukhira, 2002) CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 3.0 Introduction A vote is an electorates act of voting, whereby voting is the civic duty of every citizen. It is the starting and the ending point of every democracy. In general, the voting system allows electors to select a candidate or a party. The citizens participation in election is important for democracy. If citizens do not have a hand in political things (especially elections) democracy is exposed to weakening risks. (Pasquino, 1983). Citizens derive a direct benefit from fulfilling this duty. However, it is indeed serious because some citizen abstains from their civic duty. The decrease in the rate of voter turnout has been constantly observed. It is contended that voter turnout and voter abstention are closely related to one-another. These two factors will be used interchangeably throughout this study but as opposites of each other. Poole and Rosenthal (1997) argue that the decision to vote or to abstain can be formulated with the equation: R=P (B)-C+D where R is the net reward from voting, B is the material benefit brought about by voting, P is the probability that ones vote makes a difference, C is the cost associated with voting, and D is the fixed benefit of voting. Electors will abstain if the perceived benefits of abstention will exceed the perceived costs. This can be formulated by an equation: R= (P (B))-(C+D))>0. On the other hand, Corey Brettschneider (2007) claimed that: mutual respect, equality or autonomy, are the core substantive values associated to the right to vote. These values should make the right to vote worth being enjoyable and exercisable, rather than the other way round. Riker and Ordeshook (1968) introduced the citizen duty notion to explain the issue of voter turnout. This literature review addresses the causes, factors leading to a decrease of voter turnout and an increase in voting abstention. 3.1 Voter Abstention Abstention occurs when an eligible voter does not cast a ballot during an election process. It has been observed that many countries are suffering from a high abstention rate due to the citizens low participation during elections. Abstention is a real concern and a challenge for politicians, who must persuade the public of the need to vote, according to Seddik Chihas of the National Democratic Rally (RND). (Ademe Amine, 2012). Abstention shall not be compared with blank vote where an eligible voter purposely spoils a vote by marking it wrongly or by marking anything at all, whereby abstention is when the electorate does not vote at all. 3.1.1 Un-informed electors According to Arianna Degans and Antonio Merlos study in 2004, who votes and for who people vote determine the outcome of the elections. It is of high importance for candidates during elections to ensure the participation of their citizens and as well as their voting decisions. Abstention occurs when there is a lack of information about the candidates, (Arianna Degan and Antonio Merlo, 2004), who make the wrong decision or the wrong choice. This can be costly to the elections where a wrong candidate might be elected. Some electors might also feel unmotivated to vote due to a feeling of uncertainty towards candidates but when a citizen is well informed about his civic duty and the electoral candidates, he will definitely participate during elections and vote for the right candidate. 3.2 Voter Turnout Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. Eligible voters shall not be compared with the total adult population because some adults are not eligible to vote. Voter turnout is an essential quality of fair election and is considered to be a necessary factor for a healthy democracy. Low turnout is generally accredited to disengagement from the system because of perceived efficacy of voting in altering policy decisions. Consequently established democracies with free elections usually have higher turnout than other states. Understanding voter turnout Voting turnout has often been used to judge the evolution of democratic countries, (Scot and Barbara, 2005). The act of voting depicts the preference of the citizens as this show the extent to which the citizens are actually interested in being represented.(Fair Vote Canada; Lijphart, 1996) However, low level of participation is being noticed on behalf of eligible voters. This is due to disenchantment, indifference, or contentment. As such a poll with low turnout is not reliable, because it does not show what the whole country wants; it shows only part of the citizens will. For example, an elector may have abstained from voting because her favourite party had no chances of attaining representation. Different countries have very different average voter turnouts. Low turnout can be expressed differently. For example, in developed countries, the young and the poor are the abstainers. However, India which comprises of an electorate of more than 670 million people, the contrary is found. The poor, who comprises of the majority of the demographic, tend to vote more than the rich and the middle- class, and turnout is higher in rural areas than in urban areas ( D.Gupta, 2004) 3.2.2 Socio- economic factors Citizens participate politically when their level of wealth and education increases because they are more informed and has a feeling of efficacy. This leads to a higher political participation (Lijphart, 1997). According to Ioannis and Phil (2005), sociologist argues that the political behaviour, the identification with a partys values and peoples interest to vote are affected by the socio.economic characteristics. Turnout is higher among those with higher income, those of higher education, white -collar workers, whites, men, middle-aged , older voters, those with closer community ties, those married and the members of organizations. In developing countries, to maintain security and economic development in case when things are bad, citizens tend to vote in great numbers (Radcliff 1992; Fornos et al.2004) Cultural Factor The educational level and the wealth of the country affect turnout but these are not reliable measures as in countries like Europe, in spite of the fact that it is wealthy and have a high rate of literacy, the level of turnout is found to be low. Despite the fact, that countries, like those in Europe and Latin America have a newer democracy, they do not have the cultural habit of voting. The eligible voters do not have the sense of civic duty, which takes time and certain social conditions to develop. These social conditions developed by G. Bingham Powell are: trust in government, the degree of partisanship among the population, interest in politics, and belief in the efficiency of voting. Political Factor Crewe et al. (1992) traced four factors associated with turnout irregularity: being young, having recently moved home, the type of housing tenure, and, marital status(single or divorced). These factors are inter-correlated but they have an independent effect on turnout. According to Crewe et al. (1992), isolation from personal and national networks resulted in a lack of political information or pressure to vote, thus, lowering turnout due to a lack of motivation. Weak or absent party emerged as another important source of irregular voting (Crewe et al, 1992). According to their study, the identification of age and strength are inter-dependently related to voter turnout. A lack in the government performance also carries a negative impact upon turnout. Strong political competition and ideological cleavages between parties tend to increase turnout (Dalton, 1988). Institutional Factor Institutional factors have a significant impact on voter turnout. These variables are classified into three categories: Electoral rules, Perception of the effectiveness of governing institutions, Mobilization. Electoral rules Variables in electoral rules include compulsory voting, registration rules and voting age. Compulsory voting Compulsory voting increases turnout because once voting is made mandatory, people follow the rule irrespective of the punitive sanctions for non-voting (Lijphart 1997). However, in Venezuela and the Netherlands compulsory voting has been rescinded, due to a decrease in turnout. On the other hand, Paraguay having a compulsory voting system imposes payment of a fine and ineligibility for elective office for a prescribed period. Colombia and Nicaragua also have compulsory voting. In Greece voting is compulsory; however there are practically no sanctions for those who do not vote. In Belgium voting is compulsory, too, but not strongly enforced. Registration rules Automatic and compulsory registration often leads to a low turnout because even those who are not eligible, as stated below in the case study: The Republic of Mauritius: Disqualified voters, are on the registration list which gives false survey. Conversely, an election where registration is voluntary or requires a personal initiative ought to be associated with higher voter turnout, because the institutional obstacle of registration has already been surmounted. (Payne et al, 2002) Voting age Voting age has been found to be positively associated to voting turnout as younger citizens are less exposed to politics (Wolfinger and Rosenstone, 1980) and are less likely to vote as older voters. Compared to the youths, the older generations tend to have the sense of civic duty. Older people vote more than youths. The act of voting is also seen as part of the young people coming-of-age ritual. 3.2.5.2 Perception of the effectiveness of governing institutions Variables in the governing effectiveness category include the number of political parties, the relative power of the lower house, federalism or the centralization of the government, and concurrent elections. These variables may affect voters perceptions of the effectiveness or the policy of the powers of the elected officials. The number of political parties Jackman (1987) argues that multi parties lead to coalition building to policy ambiguity and compromise. It is expected to reduce the probability of legislative majorities and worsen executive legislative cooperation which may lead to rendering the electoral process less consequential. The relative power of the lower house This unicameral legislature has to adopt the majoritarian policy to be more effective. This is supposed to render voting to be more meaningful. The centralization of the government Centralized government is more effective, efficient and decisive. Jones (1997) argues that federal political arrangements create new electoral dynamics. The federalism variable is ought to capture longer ballots, which are believed to reduce turnout and the presence of unique local election laws that may deter voting. Concurrent elections Concurrent election means the instances when presidential and legislative elections are held at the same time. Concurrent election is supposed to increase voter turnout as it is expected to contribute to the perception that the election is more relevant. 3.2.5.3 Mobilization Institutional variables in the mobilization category include district magnitude and electoral disproportionality. District magnitude As district magnitude increases political parties have more incentives to retain all seats found in a particular district (Powell, 1986). With a smaller pool of candidates or political parties competing for votes in the district, the distribution of patronage will be more visible and more certain which is ought to result in greater voter mobilization. Electoral disproportionality Electoral disproportionality occurs when parties receive electoral support that does not translate into representation in the legislature in which case, votes have been wasted (Burnham 1987). Wasted votes are found to be associated negatively with voting turnout as parties have less of an incentive to turn out to vote. 3.2.5.4 Salience Mark. N. Franklin (1997) argues that salience is the effect of a vote of an eligible voter over a country. Salient issues are politically important as public opinions are likely to structure party support and voting behaviour and form the subject of political debate. Voters perceptions of fairness impact on salience. Citizens will not cast any ballot if they feel that the election is not worthy, corrupted and determined by fraud thus relating to low voter turnout. Gender Abstention For ages, gender inequality has been prevailing. Women were considered to be inferior to men. Women were confined in a more private sphere leaving men in a public one, especially in politics due to a combination of psychological and sociological causes. If we refer to classical literature, we shall see how women were kept away from the social aspect of life. Women roles in the society were to be a mother, a wife, a sister or a friend. This practice has prevailed for years. There is only a minority of women who participates in the society. However an analysis at the end of 90s in 19 centuries (Norris et al, 2003) confirmed that Norway had a female participation rate significantly higher than men, in Germany, Great Britain and Spain men and women abstention rates were very close, and in all countries there was an invasion in the youngest ages, female children vote more than their mothers. Voter Fatigue Voter fatigue tends to lower turnout. This occurs when participants do not find any interest to cast a ballot. They get bored and reject participation. This may be due to frequent election. Eileen Park, a journalist, reported on 31 March 2012 that voter fatigue might be a cause to influence the public not to vote though being at the eve of the GOP (Grand Old Party) Presidential Election in Wisconsin. The public were no more motivated to vote. Voter Suppression Voter suppression is used as a stratagem to influence the outcome of an election by

Magic realism as post-colonialist device in Midnights Children Essay

Magic realism as post-colonialist device in Midnight's Children Magic realism in relation to the post-colonial and Midnight's Children 'The formal technique of "magic realism,"' Linda Hutcheon writes, '(with its characteristic mixing of the fantastic and the realist) has been singled out by many critics as one of the points of conjunction of post-modernism and post-colonialism' (131). Her tracing the origins of magic realism as a literary style to Latin America and Third World countries is accompanied by a definition of a post-modern text as signifying a change from 'modernism's ahistorical burden of the past': it is a text that 'self-consciously reconstruct[s] its relationship to what came before' (131). The post-modern is linked by magic realism to 'post-colonial literatures [which] are also negotiating....the same tyrannical weight of colonial history in conjunction with the past' (131). Before discussing magic realism in Midnight's Children, a brief definition of the term "post-colonialism"as I intend to use it in this essay will aid the clarification of the links made between Hutcheon's theory and the following analysis of Rushdie's text. Ania Loomba argues that post-colonialism is a loose term. She notes that the prefix "post"....implies an "aftermath" in two senses - temporal, as in coming after, and ideological, as in supplanting. It is the second implication which critics of the term have found contestable: if the inequities of colonial rule have not been erased, it is perhaps premature to proclaim the demise of colonialism. A country may be both postcolonial (in the sense of being formally independent) and neo-colonial (in the sense of remaining economically and/or culturally dependant) at the same time. (7) .. ...Helen Tiffin, eds. The Post-colonial Studies Reader. London: Routledge, 1995. Durix, Jean-Pierre. "Salman Rushdie: Interview." Kunapipi4.2 (1982): 17 - 26. Hutcheon, Linda. "Circling the Downspout of Empire." Ashcroft, Bill et al., 130 - 5. Loomba, Ania.Colonialism/Postcolonialism. London: Routledge, 1998. Mishra, Vijay. "The Texts of Mother India." After Europe.Ed. Stephen Slemon and Helen Tiffin. Sydney: Dangaroo Press, 1989. 119-37. Monaco, James, ed. The Virgin International Encyclopedia of Film. London: Virgin, 1992. Pattayanak, Chandrabhanu. "Interview with Salman Rushdie." Literary Criterion 18.3 (1983): 19 - 22. Rushdie, Salman. Midnight's Children. London: Vintage, 1995. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage, 1994. Slemon, Stephen. "Magic Realism as Post-Colonial Discourse". Canadian Literature 116 (1988): 9 - 24.

Comparision of cities :: essays research papers

3 Cities Comparison Paper: Alexandria, Egypt   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are some differences between Alexandria in 1000 A.D and present day Alexandria, Egypt. There are also some similarities, too. In ancient times, the population of Alexandria was not actually calculated, but definitely far less than today. Presently, there is a population of approximately 3,380,000 people. Along with the increased population, comes a totally different way of life. In the past, people made their living trading products typical to their era and working for more prominent people. Nowadays, there are many factories and industries, such as oil refineries, automobile assembly plants, and textile plants. Trade is still a common way of life and business, but in a slightly different way. In the past, items traded were related to the time it existed. Now, items are more modern, according to the time period and what is in demand. Another distinctive characteristic is the structure of society in Alexandria, Egypt. Ancient Egyptian society consisted in a structure closely resembling a pyramid, and actually still exists today. There is a system of castes and classes that range from the very rich to the very poor. Generally the society has not drastically changed, but is slowly but surely trying to catch up with the times and with the rest of the world. A particular custom in this country which has changed is the idea and practice of marriage. Formerly, it was customary and dependably arranged and most of the times, at a very young age. This ritual or custom was particularly due to the families exchanging goods and other possessions between each other. Today, marriage has a completely different outlook. Women are able to choose who they wish to marry, but not without the consent and approval of the families.